Faculty of Medical Sciences > Biochemistry > Academic
UG/PG Study
M.B.B.S.
BIOCHEMISTRY THEORY
Paper I
Section – A MCQ
Section - B
1.
Introduction to Biochemistry: it's Role in Medicine.
2.
Molecular and Functional Organization of cell and its Sub-Cellular Components.
3.
Mechanisms involved in maintenance of body fluid and pH homeostasis (Acid base balance and its disorders).
4.
Structure and function of biomolecules: (Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids)
5.
Fundamental aspects of enzymology and regulation of enzyme activity.
6.
Metabolism of Minerals.
7.
Biological Oxidation including ATP Cycle.
8.
Free Radical Biology.
Section – C
1.
Digestion and assimilation of nutrients.
2.
Various aspects of metabolism and its regulatory pathways.
3.
Carbohydrate Metabolism, Glycolysis, Glycogenesis, Gluconeogenesis, Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism, TCA Cycle, Galactose and Fructose Metabolism, HMP Shunt Pathway, Glucuronic Acid pathway, Hormonal Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism.
4.
Fat metabolism: Oxidation of fats and fatty acids, Biosynthesis of fatty acids, ketone bodies, Ketogenesis, and Steroids metabolism with special reference to cholesterol metabolism.
5.
Protein metabolism: Amino acid metabolism and urea cycle.
6.
Nucleic acid metabolism.
7.
Inter-relationship of metabolic pathways.
Paper II
Section – A MCQ
Section - B
1.
Molecular Biology including Regulation of gene expression, Recombinant DNA technology, DNA Cloning, Vectors, DNA fingerprinting and its applications, Restriction Fragment length polymorphism, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Recombinant DNA products in medicine (anticoagulants, blood factors, erythropoietin, Human Growth Hormone, Human insulin, Interferons), Human Gene Therapy.
3.
Biochemical basis of inherited disorders (inborn errors of metabolism): General concept with special reference to Galactosemia, glycogen storage diseases, phenyl ketonuria, alkaptonuria, albinism, maple syrup urine disease, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia and Gout etc.
4.
Biochemical basis of environmental health hazards including xenobiotic metabolism.
5.
Cancer and carcinogenesis.
Section – C
1.
Clinical Biochemistry: Collection of blood samples, Kidney functions tests, liver function test, Gastric function test, Thyroid function test, Enzymes in diagnosis, Plasma proteins, Water and Electrolyte balance, Lipid Profile etc.
2.
Immunology
3.
Diet and Nutrition and consequence of malnutrition. Balanced diet, Biological value of proteins essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, SDA, dietary factors affecting serum cholesterol level and nutritional deficiency diseases.
4.
Vitamins.
5.
Molecular and action of hormones, Biochemical role of hormones.
BIOCHEMISTRY SYLLABUS FOR B.D.S. STUDENTS
1.
CHEMISTRY OF BIOORGANIC MOLECULES
Carbohydrates: Definition, biological importance and classification. Monosaccharides isomerism, anomerism. Sugar derivatives, Disaccharides. Polysaccharides. Structures of starch and glycogen.
Lipids: Definition, biological importance and classification. Fats and fatty acids. Introduction to compound lipids. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups. Cholesterol. Bile salts. Micelle. Bimolecular leaflet.
Proteins: Biological importance. Aminoacids: Classification. Introduction to peptides. Proteins: Simple and conjugated; globular and fibrous. Charge properties. Buffer action introduction to protein conformation. Denaturation.
Nucleic acids: Building units. Nucleotides. Outline structure of DNA and RNA.
High energy compounds: ATP, Phosphorylamidines, Thiolesters, Enol phosphates.
2.
MACRONUTRIENTS AND DIGESTION
Energy needs: Basal metabolic rate. Dietary carbohydrates, fibres. Dietary lipids, essential fatty acids. Nitrogen balance. Essential amino acids. Protein quality and requirement (methods for evaluation of protein quality to be excluded). Protein calorie malnutrition. Balanced diet.
Enzymatic hydrolysis of dietary carbohydrates. Mechanism of uptake of monosaccharides. Digestion and absorption of triacylglycerols. Enzymatic hydrolysis of dietary proteins and uptake of amino acids.
3.
MICRONUTRIENTS
Vitamins: Definition, classification, daily requirement, sources and deficiency symptoms. Brief account of water-soluble vitamins with biochemical functions. Vitamins A functions including visual process. Vitamin D and its role in calcium metabolism. Vitamin E. vitamin K and gamma carboxylation. Introduction to antivitamins and hypervitaminosis.
Minerals: Classification, daily requirement. Calcium and phosphate: sources, uptake, excretion, function. Serum calcium regulation. Iron: sources, uptake and transport. Heme and nonheme iron functions; deficiency. Iodine: Brief introduction to thyroxine synthesis. General functions of thyroxine. Fluoride: function, deficiency and excess. Indications of role of other minerals.
4.
ENERGY METABOLISM
Overview: Outlines of glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle. Beta oxidation of fatty acids. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Ketone body formation and utilization. Introduction to glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, fatty acid synthesis, lipogenesis and lipolysis. Gluconeogenesis. Lactate metabolism. Protein utilization for energy. Glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids. Integration of metabolism.
5.
SPECIAL ASPECTS OF METABOLISM
Importance of pentose phosphate pathway. Formation of glucuronic acid. Outlines of cholesterol synthesis and breakdown. Ammonia metabolism. Urea formation. Phosphocreatine formation. Transmethylation. Amines. Introduction to other functions of amino acids including one carbon transfer. Detoxication: Typical reactions. Examples of toxic compounds. Oxygen toxicity.
6.
BIOCHEMICAL GENETICS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Introduction to nucleotides; formation and degradation. DNA as genetic material. Introduction to replication and transcription. Forms and functions of RNA. Genetic code and mutation. Outline of translation process. Antimetabolites and antibiotics interfering in replication, transcription and translation. Introduction to cancer, viruses and oncogenes.
7.
ENZYME AND METABOLIC REGULATION
Enzymes: Definition, classification, specificity and active site. Cofactors. Effect of pH, temperature and substrate concentration. Introduction to enzyme inhibitors, proenzymes and isoenzymes. Introduction to allosteric regulation, covalent modification and regulation by induction/repression.
Overview of hormones: Introduction to second messengers, cyclic AMP, calcium ion, inositol triphosphate. Mechanism of action of steroid hormones, epinephrine, glucagon and insulin in brief. Acid base regulation. Electrolyte balance.
8.
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS AND BLOOD PROTEINS
Connective tissue: Collagen and elastin. Glycosaminoglycans. Bone structure. Structure of membranes. Membrane associated processes in brief. Exocytosis and endocytosis. Introduction to cytoskeleton. Myofibril and muscle contraction in brief.
Haemoglobin: functions. Introduction to heme synthesis and degradation. Plasma proteins: classification and separation. Functions of albumin. A brief account of immunoglobulins. Plasma lipoproteins: Formation, function and turnover.
9.
MEDICAL BIOCHEMISTRY
Regulation of blood glucose. Diabetes mellitus and related disorders. Evaluation of glycemic status. Hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism: Biochemical evaluation. Hyperlipoproteinemias and atherosclerosis, Approaches to treatment. Jaundice: Classification and evaluation. Liver function tests: Plasma protein pattern, serum enzymes levels. Brief introduction to kidney function tests and gastric function tests. Acid base imbalance. Electrolyte imbalance: evaluation. Gout. Examples of genetic disorders including lysosmal storage disorders, glycogen storage disorders, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, hemoglobinopathies, inborn errors of amino acid metabolism and muscular dystrophy (one or two examples with biochemical basis will be adequate). Serum enzymes in diagnosis.
Post Graduate curriculum MD Biochemistry
1. Goals
The purpose of PG education is to create specialists intended to provide high quality health care and advance the cause of science through research & training. The main goal of a student with MD degree in Biochemistry is he/she should be well-versed in basic concepts and recent advances in the subject and should have acquired skills and expertise in various laboratory techniques applicable to metabolic and molecular aspects of medicine and in research methodology so as to enable him/her to understand, envisage and explain life processes as molecular events and apply his/her knowledge and skills in clinical problem solving and scientific research. Training during the course will equip the student with skills to become an effective teacher, able to plan and implement teaching programmes for students in medical and allied health science courses, set up/ and manage a diagnostic laboratory, generate, evaluate and interpret diagnostic laboratory data, interact with clinicians to contribute to more effective patient care and carry out a research project and publish its results. 2. Objectives
At the end of the MD training program in Biochemistry, the post graduate student should have acquired competencies in the following areas, as detailed below. Knowledge (Cognitive Domain):
The post graduate student is expected to demonstrate his/her understanding of the concepts and principles of biochemistry and cell biology, including correlations of these with cellular and molecular processes involved in health and disease. He/she should acquire knowledge on molecular motif of a living cell, structural and functional hierarchy of bio-molecules and their structure function relationships, biochemistry of human nutrition, metabolism, metabolic interrelationships, metabolic homeostasis, molecular and cell biology, body defense against xenobiotics and pathogens, cancer biochemistry, principles of various laboratory estimations, instrumentations and rationale underlying laboratory investigations, along with fundamentals of Biostatistics.
Skills (Psychomotor domain):
The student should be able to conduct biochemical laboratory investigations and experimentations relevant to clinical management and biomedical research; analyze, interpret and evaluate the data, rationalize their application in clinical management and experimental research. He/ She should be able to set up, /supervise/, manage a diagnostic laboratory in Biochemistry in a hospital, ensuring quality control and providing a reliable support service.
He/ She should acquire skills to effectively plan and conduct lecture, practical demonstrations, tutorial classes and small group discussions on clinical problems for undergraduate students in medicine and allied health science courses.
He/ She should be able to carry out a research project from planning to publication and be able to pursue academic interests and continue life-long learning to become more experienced in all the above areas and be eventually be able to guide postgraduates in their thesis work.
Communication (Affective domain):
He/ She should be able to demonstrate communication skills of a higher order in explaining effectively to patients from a variety of backgrounds, the molecular and metabolic basis of disease states and lifestyle modifications, and shows empathy and respect towards patients and families regardless of the biochemical nature of their disease. In addition, he/she should communicate biochemical reasoning effectively with peers, staff and faculty and other members of the health care team. Demonstration of ethical behavior and integrity in his/her work is highly expected.
3. Syllabus
The course contents are outlined below: Paper I: Biomolecules, cell biology, biochemical techniques, biostatistics and research
methodology, basics of medical education in teaching and assessment of biochemistry
Biomolecules:
Properties of water
Concept of an acid, a base, pH, pK, buffer and buffering capacity
Classification, structure and functions of amino acids and peptides
Structural organization of proteins and relationship with their functions
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins
protein folding and denaturation
Structure-function relationship of proteins
Structure and functions of hemoglobin and myoglobin
Structure and function of collagen
Structure and function of immunoglobulins
Classification, functions, properties and reactions of carbohydrates
Classification, properties and importance of lipids
Fatty acids - nomenclature, classification, properties, reactions
Mono, di- and triacylglycerols
Trans fats
Cholesterol - structure, properties and functions
Phospholipids - definition, types, properties, s and importance
Chromatography (principle, types [including high performance liquid
chromatography and gas chromatography])
Techniques in molecular biology: Blotting techniques, polymerase chain
reaction (PCR), DNA and protein sequencing, microarrays and DNA chip
technology, cloning techniques, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics
Nanotechnology and microfabrication
Techniques to study in vivo metabolism - NMR, SPECT, PET scans, etc
Radioisotope-based techniques and its applications
Biostatistics and research methodology
Basic concepts of biostatistics as applied to health science
Statistical tests: t-test, analysis of variance, chi-square test, non-parametric tests,
correlation and regression
Statistical methods of validation of diagnostic tests
Basics of epidemiological study designs and sampling methodologies
Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Basics of medical education in teaching and assessment of biochemistry
Principles of adult learning, taxonomy of learning, educational objectives, principles of
assessment and question paper setting, methods of assessing knowledge, appropriate use of
media, microteaching, small group teaching.
Environmental Biochemistry:
Health and pollution.
Paper II: Enzymes, bioenergetics, biological oxidation, intermediary metabolism and regulation, inborn errors of metabolism and nutrition
Enzymes
Properties, classification, mechanism of action, coenzymes and cofactors, kinetics of enzyme
activity, regulation of enzyme activity, isoenzymes, diagnostic and therapeutic enzymes,
principles of assays of enzymes, enzymes as therapeutic targets of drugs.
Biological oxidation
Basic concepts of thermodynamics and its laws, as applied to living systems,
Exergonic and endergonic reactions and coupled reactions, redox potential
High energy compounds
Classification and role of oxidoreductases
Cytochromes; cytochrome P450 system
Respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation
Components, complexes and functioning of the respiratory chain
Process of oxidative phosphorylation
Mechanisms of ATP synthesis and regulation
Mitochondrial transport systems and shuttles
Inhibitors, uncouplers and ionophores
OXPHOS diseases
Overview of metabolism and intermediary metabolism
Metabolism of carbohydrates
Digestion and absorption
Glycolysis and TCA cycle, including regulation
Glycogen metabolism and its regulation
Cori cycle, gluconeogenesis and control of blood glucose
Metabolism of fructose and galactose
Pentose phosphate and uronic acid pathways and their significance
pathogenesis, metabolic abnormalities, diagnostic criteria, principles of treatment,
pathogenesis of complications, laboratory tests
Metabolism of ethanol
Metabolism of lipids
Digestion and absorption, including role of bile salts
Biosynthesis and oxidation of fatty acids
Ketone bodies – formation, utilisation and regulation
Metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoids
Metabolism of triacylglycerol; storage and mobilisation of fats
Metabolism of cholesterol
Metabolism of lipoproteins
Metabolism in adipose tissue
Role of liver in lipid metabolism
Role of lipids in atherogenesis
Metabolism of phospholipids and associated disorders
Metabolism of amino acids and proteins
Digestion and absorption
Pathways of amino acid degradation - transamination, oxidative deamination
Transport and metabolism of ammonia
Metabolism of individual amino acids.
Plasma proteins
Metabolism of nucleotides
De novo synthesis of purine nucleotides
Salvage pathway for purines
Degradation of purines
De novo synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides
Degradation of pyrimidine
Synthetic analogues of purine/pyrimidine bases and nucleosides used as therapeutic
agents
Metabolism of heme
Biosynthesis of heme and associated disorders
Degradation of heme and associated disorders
Metabolism in individual tissues and in the fed and fasting states
Liver, adipose tissue, brain, RBCs
Nutrition
Principal food components
General nutritional requirements
Energy requirements
Biological value of proteins
Thermogenic effect of food
Balanced diet, diet formulations in health and disease, mixed diet
Nutritional supplements
Food toxins and additives
Parenteral nutrition
Disorders of nutrition, obesity, protein and protein energy malnutrition, dietary fibers,
under-nutrition, laboratory diagnosis of nutritional disorders
National Nutrition Programme.
Vitamins
Classification, biochemical role, sources, RDA and deficiency state of each vitamin (including diagnostic tests for deficiency and treatment)
Minerals
Classification, biochemical role, sources, requirement and deficiency state of each mineral
(including diagnostic tests for deficiency and treatment)
Metabolism of xenobiotics
Free radicals and anti-oxidant defence systems in the body and associations with disease processes
Paper III: Molecular biology, molecular and genetic aspects of cancer, immunology and effects of environmental pollutants on the body
Structure and organization of chromosomes and chromatin re-modelling
DNA replication
DNA replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (including important
differences between the two):
Roles of DNA polymerase, helicase, primase, topoisomerase and DNA ligase
Replication fork
Okazaki fragments and its importance in replication.
Overview of role of major DNA repair mechanisms – mismatch repair, base
excision repair, nucleotide excision repair and double strand break repair.
Diseases associated with abnormalities of DNA repair systems
DNA recombination
Transcription
Structure of a gene - exons and introns, promoter, enhancers/repressors and
response elements.
Process of transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes – initiation, elongation
and termination (including important differences).
Post-transcriptional processing – capping, tailing and splicing.
Genetic code and mutations
Characteristics of the genetic code
Molecular basis of degeneracy of the genetic code (Wobble hypothesis)
Mutagens- examples of physical, chemical and biological mutagens.
Types of mutations – point mutations and chromosomal mutations
Relationship of mutations with specific diseases
Translation
Basic structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes.
Structure of tRNA (diagram of clover leaf model of tRNA structure) and its
function in protein synthesis.
Function of aminoacyl tRNA synthase.
Process of protein synthesis (translation) – initiation, elongation and
termination (including important differences between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic translation).
Inhibition of prokaryotic translation by antibiotics.
Post-translational modifications
Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
The operon concept in prokaryotes
Role of general and gene specific transcription factors
Small interference RNA (siRNA) and micro RNA (miRNA).
Other modes of regulation of gene expression: alternative splicing, alternative
promoter usage, DNA methylation, Histone acetylation / deacetylation, RNA
editing, alterations of RNA stability
Recombinant DNA technology and its applications in modern medicine
Concepts of recombinant DNA, genetic engineering, biotechnology and cloning.
Restriction endonucleases.
Vectors for cloning – plasmids and phages.
Genomic and cDNA libraries.
Applications of recombinant DNA technology in medicine.
Gene therapy
Diagnosis of genetic diseases and genetic counseling
DNA fingerprinting
DNA sequencing
Microarrays
Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH)
DNA vaccines
Transgenic animals
Application of molecular techniques in forensic investigation and medico-legal cases
Overview of Human Genome Project
Basics of bioinformatics
Principles of human genetics
Alleles, genotypes and phenotypes
Patterns of inheritance: monogenic and polygenic inheritance
Population genetics
Genetic factors in causation of diseases
Types of genetic diseases: Chromosomal, monogenic and polygenic disorders, mitochondrial disorders, nucleotide repeat expansion disorders, imprinting disorders
Screening for genetic diseases and prenatal testing
Ethical and legal issues related to medical genetics
Stem cells in clinical medicine
Basic concepts regarding stem cells
Types of stem cells: embryonic and induced pleuripotent stem cells (IPSC)
Potential applications in the clinical medicine
Ethical and legal issues related to use of stem cells in medicine
Cancer
Carcinogens: physical, chemical and biological
Clonal origin of cancers
Genetic basis of carcinogenesis
Role of oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes
Familial cancer syndromes
Cancer stem cells
Epigenetic regulation in cancer
Gene expression profiling in cancer
Cancer cell biology: cell cycle abnormalities, telomerase activity, proliferative
capacity and decreased apoptosis
Metastasis
Tumor markers
Biochemical basis of cancer chemotherapy and drug resistance
New methods of anti-cancer therapy: targeted cancer therapy, cancer immunotherapy.
Immunology
Innate and acquired immunity
Humoral and cell-mediated immunity
Cells and organs of the immune system - T and B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, NK cells, granulocytes
Antigens, epitopes and haptens
Immunoglobulin classes, isotypes, allotypes, idiotypes, monoclonal antibodies, organization and expression of immunoglobulin genes, immunoglobulin gene rearrangement, class switching
Major histocompatibility complex, antigen processing and presentation,
T cell and B cell receptor, toll like receptors
T cell maturation/activation/differentiation
B cell generation/activation/differentiation
Cytokines
Complement system, cell
Immune response to infections
Hypersensitivity reactions
Vaccines
Immuno-deficiency syndromes
Autoimmunity
Transplantation immunology
Cancer and immune system
Immunodiagnostics
Immunotherapy
Paper IV: Clinical biochemistry and molecular diagnostics related to different body systems/organs, endocrinology, and recent advances in biochemistry
Basic principles and practice of clinical biochemistry
Units of measure, reagents, clinical laboratory supplies, basic separation techniques, laboratory calculations, specimen collection and processing, safety in the laboratory, clinical utility of laboratory tests (including sensitivity, specificity, ROC curves, etc), analysis in the laboratory, selection and evaluation of methods (including statistical techniques), evidence- based laboratory medicine, establishment and use of reference values, pre-analytical variables and biological variations, quality management, c1inical laboratory informatics
Analytical techniques and instrumentation
Principles of basic techniques used in a clinical biochemistry laboratory (spectrophotometry, electrochemistry, electrophoresis, osmometry, chromatography, mass spectrometry, immunochemical techniques, molecular techniques, automation, point of care testing,
Clinical correlates and analytical procedure
Amino acids, peptides and proteins; non-protein nitrogenous compounds
enzymes
carbohydrates
lipids, lipoproteins and apolipoproteins and other cardiovascular risk factors
electrolytes
blood gases and pH
hormones and associated disorders
catecholamines and serotonin
vitamins; trace and toxic elements
hemoglobin and bilirubin
porphyrins and associated disorders
bone and mineral metabolism
tumour markers
assessment of organ functions (hypothalamus and pituitary, adrenal glands, gonads,
thyroid, parathyroid, liver,
associated disorders
kidney, heart, stomach, pancreas, intestine, etc) and
pregnancy and maternal and fetal health
reproduction related disorders – infertility
newborn screening
inborn errors of metabolism
hemostasis
therapeutic drug monitoring
clinical toxicology
molecular diagnostics
body fluid analyses
Regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance and associated disorders
Regulation of acid-base balance and associated disorders
Biochemistry of the endocrine system
Classification and general mechanism of action of hormones
Biosynthesis, secretion, regulation, transport and mode of action of hypothalamic peptides, adenohypophyseal and neurohypophyseal hormones, thyroid and parathyroid hormones, calcitonin, pancreatic hormones, adrenocortical and medullary hormones, gonadal hormones, gastrointestinal hormones, opioid peptides, parahormones.
Biochemistry of conception, reproduction and contraception
Endocrine interrelationship and their involvement in metabolic regulation
Neuro-modulators and their mechanism of action and physiological significance
Biochemical aspects of diagnosis and treatment of endocrinal disorders:
Hematopoietic disorders
Iron deficiency and other hypoproliferative anaemias - iron metabolism, laboratory tests of iron status, iron therapy
Anaemia of chronic disease, anaemia of renal disease
Gaseous exchange in lungs - physiological features and disturbances, arterial blood gases
Pathogenesis of cystic emphysema, alpha-1 anti-trypsin deficiency
Kidney function tests; pathophysiology, biochemistry, laboratory findings and management
in acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease; estimation of GFR; glomerular diseases - pathogenesis and mechanisms of glomerular injury, nephrotic syndrome, diabetic nephropathy; tubular disorders - renal tubular acidosis, proteinuria, nephrolithiasis, kidney
transplant; biochemical aspects of renal stones.
Gastrointestinal system
Gastric physiology
Pathophysiology of peptic ulcer disease, including role of H. pylori; gastric function tests; Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
Digestion and absorption of nutrients; evaluation of malabsorption (steatorrhea,
lactose intolerance)
Celiac disease
Inflammatory bowel disease
Protein losing enteropathy
Regulatory peptides in the gut
Neuroendocrine tumours
Liver
Liver function tests
Hyperbilirubinemias
Viral hepatitis
Serologic/virologic markers
Alcoholic liver disease, fatty liver, chronic liver disease, cirrhosis and its
complications
Pathogenesis of ascites
Hepatic encephalopathy
Metabolic diseases affecting liver
Reye's syndrome
Diseases of gall bladder/bile ducts - pathogenesis of gallstones
Pancreas - acute and chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, pancreatic function tests.
Bone and mineral metabolism
Bone structure and metabolism; metabolism of calcium, phosphate and magnesium; regulation and abnormalities of bone metabolism; vitamin D; parathyroid hormone; calcitonin; parathyroid hormone-related (PTHrP); osteoporosis – pathophysiology; markers of bone turnover
Pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression and schizophrenia
Practical
By the end of the course, the post graduate student should have acquired practical skills in the following:
Performance of reactions of carbohydrates, amino acids and proteins, and lipids
Experiments to demonstrate constituents of milk
Experiments to demonstrate normal and abnormal constituents of urine
Determination of iodine number and saponification number of fats
Estimation of ammonia and amino acids by Sorenson formal titration
Estimation of nitrogen estimation in a given amino acid solution by micro Kjeldahl method
Estimation of phosphorus by Fiske Subbarao method
Estimation of ascorbic acid in lime
Estimation of calcium content in milk
Estimation of proteins by Folin’s method and dye binding method.
Two-dimensional paper chromatography for separation of amino acids
Preparation and estimation of starch, glycogen, cholesterol, casein (phosphorus in casein) and hemoglobin from biological samples
Determination of enzyme activity and study of enzyme kinetics, using any 2 suitable enzymes (eg, catalase from rat liver and acid phosphatase from potatoes).
Estimation of clinical analytes as detailed below: blood glucose, glycated haemoglobin; performance of glucose tolerance test, electrolytes, arterial blood gas analysis, cholesterol, triglycerides, free fatty acids, phospholipids, Lp (a), urea, creatinine, uric acid, ammonia, microalbuminuria, parameters of liver function tests (bilirubin, hepato-biliary enzymes such as AST, ALT, ALP, GGT, serum proteins/albumin and prothrombin time), Calcium, magnesium, copper (and ceruloplasmin), serum iron, TIBC and ferritin, markers of myocardial damage (CK, CK MB, troponins, LDH), other enzymes of diagnostic relevance (eg. phosphatases, amylase etc), vitamins D and B12 and folate
Electrophoresis of serum proteins
Electrophoresis of lipoprotein (Optional)
Electrophoretic separation of LDH isozymes or any other isoenzymes
Clearance tests
CSF analysis
Thyroid function tests and other hormone assays by ELISA/RIA
Preparation of buffers.
Clinical Laboratory: Taking any one parameter, students should prepare a Levy Jennings chart and plot inter-assay and intra-assay variation for the laboratory. Implementation of Westgard rules.
Optional:
Determination of reference values for any one parameter for the clinical laboratory
Students at least see a demonstration of the following techniques :
Separation of peripheral blood lymphocytes using Ficoll Hypaque
Subcellular fractionation/marker enzymes for organelles to fractionation
Ultracentrifugation
Isolation of high molecular weight DNA from tissues/blood
Isolation of RNA; synthesis of cDNA by reverse transcription; PCR (both conventional and real-time)
Isolation of plasmids and agarose gel electrophoresis for proteins and nucleic acids